The Relationship between the State of Emergency and Human Rights in Real event examples, Violation of Human Rights Free Essay Example, 1250 words

When a government declares a state of emergency, human rights and freedoms are also likely to be suspended. The main argument of this dissertation is to illustrate the extent to which a government can declare a state of emergency in an attempt to maintain order without violating human rights. This study will focus on the connection between the state of emergency and human rights. This will be in reference to the violation of human rights. However, the argument will be based on the extent to which a government declaring a state of emergency can enhance the maintenance of order without the violation of human rights. The Relationship between the State of Emergency and Human RightsThe declaration of a state of emergency by the government can result in the suspension of judicial powers, therefore, alerting citizens to change their behaviors. The declaration of a state of emergency by the government is also normally considered as a rationale for the suspension of human rights and freedoms . There are human rights treaties that allow a system of derogations. They allow states to amend their obligations for a given duration in special circumstances, for example, when there is a public emergency that is a threat to the nation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Relationship between the State of Emergency and Human Rights in Real event examples, Violation of Human Rights or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page The factors include; the severity of the situation resulting in the declaration of a state of emergency. This is relevant as it dictates situations in which the government can declare a state of emergency without violating human rights.

Gender And Disability An Umbrella Term Covering...

Gender and Disability WHO describes Disability as an â€Å"umbrella term covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions†. Impairment is any loss of body structure or function which leads to restriction of the activity of the individual who consequently experience problem in involvement in life situation. Census 2011 has incorporated various changes in the definition of various types of disabilities leading to inclusion and exclusion of different conditions as ‘Disability’. Also the census 2011 introduces three new categories to the list of various types of disabilities. These new additions are ‘Mental retardation’, ‘Multiple Disability’ and ‘Any other ‘ categories. Trends, Patterns and Distribution of Disability in India There are approximately 2.5 crore disabled people in India ( approx.. 1.4 crore males and 1.1 crore females). Although the absolute number of disabled males in higher than disabled females, the decadal growth (from 2001 to 2011) in the number is seen more among females ( 27.1 %) than males (18.9%). Disability in Indian context Within Indian cultural context Disability is viewed as a â€Å"lack† orâ€Å" flaw† leading to diminished capability. Images of disabled are often associated with â€Å"Mischief† and â€Å"Devilry† as in the case of ‘Dhritarashtra’ and ‘Shakuni’ of the Indian epic ’Mahabharata’ who were shown to be siding the evil. They are often portrayed as suffering the wrath of God for the sins that had committed. Another construct ofShow MoreRelatedCurrent Educational Status Of Children With Disabilities Essay1403 Words   |  6 Pageschildren with disabilities Differing combinations of structural factors (such as caste, gender, religion, poverty etc.) intersect with disability resulting in varied individual experiences, but the broad commonalities that shape the lives of people with disabilities in India transcend these divisions. Their lives are largely marked by poverty and marginalisation from mainstream social processes. A recent study by the World Bank (2007), for example, noted that children with disability are five timesRead MoreDisability Is An Umbrella Term1916 Words   |  8 PagesDefinition : Disability â€Å"is an umbrella term† covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. â€Å"Thus disability is a complex phenomenon, reflecting an interaction between features of a person’s body and featuresRead MoreEssay special education11975 Words   |  48 Pagesï » ¿CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF DISABILITY The contemporary conception of disability proposed in the WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) views disability as an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition (e.g. cerebral palsy, Down syndrome or depression) and personal and environmental factors (e.g. negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation,Read MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesInvolvement 20 How Organizations Involve Employees 20 Employee Involvement Implications for HRM 20 Other HRM Challenges 21 Recession 21 Off Shoring 21 Mergers 22 A Look at Ethics 22 Summary 23 Demonstrating Comprehension: Questions for Review 24 Key Terms 24 HRM Workshop 25 Linking Concepts to Practice: Discussion Questions 25 Developing Diagnostic and Analytical Skills 25 Case 1: Work/Life Balance at Baxter 25 Working with a Team: Understanding Diversity Issues 25 Learning an HRM Skill: GuidelinesRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesPreface xxii 1 1 Introduction What Is Organizational Behavior? 3 The Importance of Interpersonal Skills 4 What Managers Do 5 Management Functions 6 †¢ Management Roles 6 †¢ Management Skills 8 †¢ Effective versus Successful Managerial Activities 8 †¢ A Review of the Manager’s Job 9 Enter Organizational Behavior 10 Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study 11 Disciplines That Contribute to the OB Field 13 Psychology 14 †¢ Social Psychology 14 †¢ Sociology 14 †¢ Anthropology 14 There Are

Anonymous and the Web for Platforms - Politics and Publics

Question: Describe about the Anonymous and the Web for platforms,politics and publics? Answer: Telecom The main objective of the speaker is to track the evolution of the digital technology which happens fast and the main idea revolves around the fact of the value of the personal data which is related to privacy of the lives of many people, trust and defence of the values of the world wide web. These aspects have been shifting their focus and the speaker also focusses on individual and their networks than individuals and their relationships. His speeches travel through the underground universe of online activism with the help of all typesof necessary sense of humour where he talks about all types of online activities, accounts, hacking activities and personal fears and issues. It is composed of competing groups which have short term power which are achievable for smaller durations and long term endurance by any single group or people who are virtually impossible. He talks about the importance of the technical teams which are important and who tend to have and exert power on aspects as they can allow the things to happen and they can make things happen by infighting one network with another and organize various teams working together in different roles and strengths. It also emphasizes on people who search for some resources and make things happen as they have more power in operations in public. Anonymous and the Politics of Leaking. In Beyond WikiLeaks: Implications for the Future of Communications, Journalism Society, Brevini, B., Hintz, A., and McCurdy, P., eds. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013 Carola Frediani is an Italian journalist and co-founder of the media agency, Effecinque.org. She writes on new technology, digital culture and hacking for a variety of Italian publications, including LEspresso, Wired.it, Corriere della Sera, Sky.it. She is the author of Inside Anonymous: A Journey into the World of Cyberactivism.

Research Project bussines writing free essay sample

As a part of this research project we were asked to do an informational interview to help me prepared long term goals that will fulfill my career in English in professional writingThis is my second semester at Lehman College since Im a transfer student I have completed 86 credits that will eventually meet the requirements for graduation. Creating this research has given me the opportunity to think through each step that I need to take encouraging me to reach my career goal. I would star off by saying that I would have love to accomplish some many things by this age but things happen and its never too late I earned a Teacher Certificate back in Honduras and I also learned English by getting a scholarship program so those are some of the things that inspired me every day I can accomplish some many things ,just need to start working a lot harder . We will write a custom essay sample on Research Project bussines writing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Within a year I would like to be working on an school having my own classroom full of students ready to learn. Also, Im going to start a career in journalism that will allow me to connect with professionals of different fields that way I can start building a wining resume. My main goal was to be part of the FBI language analysist as I seen how much people struggle when they dont understand a language, but there is a debate Im really passionate about teaching since I was little, and I wouldnt mind doing it for a couple of years, so if can do both it will be like winning the lottery for me. As undergraduate student I would like to get as much experience within the educational and writing field and my next goal is finding the right internship to get new experiences. I would love to join the FBI Language Analysist the sooner the better I feel like I can connect a lot more with the community and I will grow as an individual and ensure some connections for an adjunct Lecturer position.Tha nks to the informational interview I know that I need to work on certain things such as:Read books, that will help better my writing. Do a lot extracurricular activity. And I want to include one quote that my professor gave me Dont let your schooling interfere with your education.Its not always about the money but your passion.Research on Cunny Schools.Writing Intensive WorkshopHelping others may help you to get your foot at the door but also following up being persistent.In conclusion my only wish after graduating from Lehman college with my Bachelor in English and Professional Writing by June 2019 with the highest GPA is to be able to aim not only a good position but also an Scholarship for my master.ttps://youtu.be/87vWXIQWsY0Work CitedFBI career: Linguists YouTube uploaded by FBI,1 November 2016, www. youtube.com/ https://youtu.be/87vWXIQWsY0sY0.FBI career: Linguists YouTube uploaded by FBI,15 August 2016, www.youtube.com/ https://youtu.be/txXGYLxG3Wk. Franklin Road Academy Summer CampsFRA AlumniNews and EventsCalendarContact UsFRA Portal LoginSearch ResultsAboutAboutMeet our Head of SchoolLeadershipStrategic VisionPublicationsFaculty StaffCareersContact Us DirectionsMission HistoryFast FactsAbout FRAMission HistoryFast FactsAdmissionAdmissionWhy FRAVisit UsRequest InformationApply NowTuition Financial AidApply to FRAFind out how you can become an FRA Panther!Schedule a VisitApply NowAcademicsAcademicsEarly Childhood (Pre-Kindergarten)Lower School (Kindergarten Grade 4)Middle School (Grades 5 8)Upper School (Grades 9 12)College CounselingASPIREMath Lab Writing CenterSignature ProgramsInnovation LabAcademicsAcademic ExcellenceCollege CounselingArtsArtsTheatreInstrumental ArtsVocal MusicDanceVisual ArtsArtsArts at FRAFriends of the Arts(FOTA)AthleticsAthleticsTeams, Scores, SchedulesPanther NewsMeet the TeamFacilitiesChampionships RecordsFRA Booster ClubBSN Sideline StoreAthleticsPanther NewsFacilitiesSpiritual LifeSpiritu al LifeChapels and DevotionsRetreatsService and MissionsSpiritual Emphasis WeekSpiritual LifeSpiritual Life at FRASpiritual Emphasis WeekCampus LifeCampus LifeCenter for Philanthropic StudiesClubs and OrganizationsInterimInternational Student LifeHeart to HeartASPIRECampus LifeCenter for Philanthropic StudiesInterimSupportSupportGiving OpportunitiesGive NowAnnual FundEndowmentCapital CampaignsPlanned GivingParent AssociationStars GuitarsSupportMake a GiftWays to GiveMeet our Head of SchoolLeadershipStrategic VisionPublicationsFaculty StaffCareersContact Us DirectionsMission HistoryFast FactsTop of FormSearchBottom of FormCareersMISSIONFranklin Road Academy provides a challenging educational experience in an inclusive Christian Community with an unwavering commitment to develop leaders of integrity and purpose.Inspire in our students a lifelong love of learning through a dynamic academic program which will prepare them for success in life; Encourage students to discover their pas sions through opportunities in academics, the arts, athletics, and servant leadership; Nurture leaders of integrity, guided by Christian principles, compelled to lead lives of compassionate global citizenship.CAREERSAt FRA, our faculty often become lifelong mentors, coming alongside our students through academic and co-curricular programs and encouraging their students to become more than they often times think is possible. Our teachers challenge students to grow as leaders and develop their sense of purpose in this world. We hire faculty who are committed to our mission to inspire, encourage, and nurture our students from our earliest pre-kindergarteners to our graduating seniors. Community life is a huge part of FRA, and faculty regularly attend games, recitals, and other campus events outside the classroom. All staff members are encouraged to lead clubs, coach teams, and integrate themselves into the school community. Open positions are listed below.Faculty Fellows ProgramFacultyLower School Pre-Kindergarten TeacherJob Location: USA-TN-NashvillePosition Type: Full-timeEducation Level: Bachelors Degree in education required (teacher certification preferred)Job Description and QualificationsThe lower school is searching for Pre-Kindergarten teacher with a collaborative spirit and strong communication and interpersonal skills. The preferred candidate will have at least two years of teaching experience in an early childhood school environment. A strong knowledge base of early childhood development and academic abilities of young learners is essential for this position.ResponsibilitiesDevelop appropriate lesson plans and instructional materials and teach assigned curriculum to all students in class, with ability to use data to drive instructional decisions and provide differentiated lessons as needed.Establish and maintain standards of student behavior needed to achieve an optimal learning environmentE stablish positive and effective rapport with students and create a classroom environment that is favorable to learning and personal growthMotivate students to develop skills, attitudes, and knowledge needed to provide a good foundation for lifelong learning while exhibiting those qualities themselvesIdentify student needs and collaborate with other professional staff members in assessing and helping studentsCollaborate with co-workers for the purpose of improving the overall quality of instruction and student learningCommunicate regularly with parents to provide updates on student academic progress and behavior through progress reports, report cards, conferences, and daily/weekly parent communicationServe on various committees to ensure functionality of the school (Vertical Teams, Committees, etc.)Participate in a variety of meetings and professional development activitiesApply for this PositionLower School PreK Teacher Lower School Pre-Kindergarten Teacher AssistantMiddle School 5t h Grade Science TeacherMiddle School Heart to Heart TeacherMiddle School French TeacherUpper School Chemistry TeacherUpper School Long Term SubstituteUpper School Latin TeacherStaffBus DriverSubstitute Teacherafter-school extended careVisit Us Request Information Apply Now4700 Franklin Pike Nashville, TN 37220615.832.8845Campus MapSite MapPrivacy PolicyFacebookTwitterInstagramVimeoPowered by Finalsite

101 Awesome Informative Essay Topics All in One Place

101 Informative Essay Topics: This is Your Best Guide! Are you looking for an informative essay? Have you been trying hard to come up with good informative essay ideas but to no use? We can understand why it’s so difficult. As human beings, whenever we write something, we tend to influence the writing by our own opinions and perceptions of the subject matter at hand. This induces bias in the essay, and it doesn’t really remain informative; instead, it becomes argumentative. It’s really a challenge to constantly scrutinize each and every line of your essay in order to ensure that the information being passed is free from any kind of bias. Sure it takes time; first to think, to write, to scrutinize and modify, then to edit, it’s really a whole lot. Besides, informative essays need to have the information drawn from credible and reliable sources. You need to carefully select the sources of information, which is not always easy because many articles available online require students to have subscriptions before th ey can view them in full length. Add to it the trouble of having to complete so many other assignments and having to prepare for the upcoming exam or quiz; we can understand you may be running out of time! We are there to help you. Wondering How to Select the Best Informative Essay Topic? Selecting the topic for an informative essay is particularly difficult. There are many challenges in deciding and finalizing the topic. To begin with, a student is confused about how to sum up and reflect the gist of the information on a topic containing hardly five or six words. On the other hand, they cannot compromise the quality of the topic because if the topic is not good, the essay’s readership is significantly reduced. You may get some idea of topics online. Try to search your keywords and look at the articles that show up. Probably you would be able to get a good idea from there. If not, don’t worry, just place an order with us and we will be pleased to write the best topic for your informative essay. Here’s a List of Informative Essay Topics We Wrote We are sharing a list of 101 informative essay topics that our writers have written. You may just get a good idea for your essay from these topics. So it’s useful for you! The end of slavery in America. The impact of Brexit on the economy of EU countries. Endangered animal species. The process of photosynthesis. Effects of water pollution on sea-life. The rise and fall of the Ottoman Empire in Turkey. Solar system. The chemical composition of petrol. The phenomenon of light reflection by white color and absorption by black color. Safe practices for administering healthcare of animals kept in the zoo. Military training of cadets in cadet colleges in Pakistan. Solar energy. The binary system. Wars between India and Pakistan. Life on other planets. The process of transfer of money across countries. The structure of the human heart. The impact of fertilizers on soil quality. African tribes. Medicinal uses of honey. Treatment of cancer. China’s five-year population control plan. Dam as a way for conservation of water. Homeless shelters in America. Types of flora in the Amazon. The demise of the Mughals in India. History of British rule in India. The Chinese influence on the global trade. Exotic animals. The role of the nervous system in a healthy human body. Processing of image in the brain. Drunk driving. The timeline of important battles in the history of Europe since the 17th The process of publication of a book. The process of a cloud formation. Fruit varieties in Africa. The effect of advertising on child psychology. Tourist attractions in Sudan. The role of education in the change of gender perception in the US since the 19th Types of crops cultivated in North America. The phenomenon of the pearl formation in the sea-shells. The mechanism of decomposition of fossil fuels. Environmental effects of global warming. Forbes’ criteria of selection the 100 most powerful women. The selection criteria in the US army. Nepotism in Hollywood. Composition of the human skin. Factors controlling the rate of rainfall in the Amazon Jungle. Corporate social responsibility initiatives of McDonald’s. Practices of compilation and preservation of ancient scriptures. Bermuda Triangle. Personal protective equipment of flight passengers. Types of sharks. 10 rarest species of fish. 100 most influential businessmen of the 20th 10 ideas to start a business with a very limited School drop-out rates among Hispanic Americans. Natural resources of Canada. The evolution of paper currency. Salient features of the latest robots. Famous hockey players. Skin allergies. Measures taken by banks against cyber attacks. Admixtures to increase the setting time of concrete in cold weather. Initiatives taken by the government of Dubai for sustained growth and development. The global financial crisis of 2008. Importance of jogging. Cognitive processes involved in language learning. The role of genes in the color of skin. Life in 2050. Malala Yousafzai as a female education activist. Serial killers. The lost civilizations. Types of rocks. Social networking as a way of relationship building. Rights of gay communities in Canada. Medicines made from the rose. Evolution of the game of football. Famous 19th-century celebrities. Initiatives taken by Prime Minister Imran Khan for improving bilateral relations between India and Pakistan. The effects of smoking on the lungs. Causes of World War II. The role of civil rights’ movement in shaping the modern American society. The effect of chemotherapy on skin cells. The culture of India. The Miss India Pageant. Top models of 2017. Color-blindness. Post-traumatic stress disorder. The effect of the imposition of VAT on businesses in Dubai. Potential for growth of trade in Afghanistan. Child abuse. Cyber-bullying on social media. The growing housing bubble in the US. Effect of inflation on trade in China. Famous leaders of the 21st Electric cars. You can see that the topics for the informative essay given above belong to all kinds of fields ranging from social sciences to construction and engineering. You can use these topics as such or improvise them to match the requirement of your essay. A List of Informative Essay Questions Phrasing a question related to the informative essay is even more difficult than writing just a topic. The question should be such that it requires only the delivery of information rather than argument or opinion. Here’s a list of some questions related to informative essays: How does a cellphone work? How chocolates are made? How does the process of pollination happen? How does cryptocurrency work? What is the composition of the earth? How fish breathe in water? How do plants conduct photosynthesis? What causes the change of seasons? How petrol is made from fossil fuels? How pre-packaged foods are processed? In what ways does the US help the third-world countries? What are perfumes made of? What is the greenhouse effect? How taste buds sense taste? How juice is made in a factory? Don’t Wait, Reach Us Now if You Can’t Do It Yourself! You can use the guidelines, topics, and questions shared above. All it will take is learning the instructions and practicing drafting to get good at informative essay writing. Just in case you are too busy to write your essay because of other assignments or an upcoming exam, you have the option of getting your piece written by us. We are a custom informative essay writing service. We write informative essays on all sorts of topics, ranging from medical sciences to engineering and social sciences. We have subscriptions and access to a variety of credible sources of information and databases. We can write informative essays for you drawing information from the latest research articles published in high-impact renowned journals. So if it’s not possible for you to write your piece yourself, complete other assignments while we write an informative essay for you. Just place the order and let our professional academic essay writers do the magic!

Truth Is Stranger Than Fiction

Truth Is Stranger Than Fiction Professional success and personal failure of James M. Barrie In researching the many odd and bizarre happenings of our unique culture, it is certain that truth is often stranger than fiction. The first paragraph of James Barrie's classic story "Peter Pan" introduced its central theme: "All children except one, grow up. They soon know that they will grow up"‚Â ¦this is the beginning of the end." It sounds innocent enough, but a look at Barrie's life gives it a more sinister twist. Although J.M.Barrie wrote many plays and stories, it was said that "All of Barrie's life led up to the creation of Peter Pan," wrote James Merritt, one of his biographers.A pivotal point came in 1866 when James, (the ninth in a Scottish family of ten), was six years old: His brother David, the pride of the family, died in a skating accident. Barrie's mother was devastated. To comfort her, James began mimicking David's speech and imitating his mannerisms.James Matthew Barrie

Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 22

Essay Example The essay, though apparently seems a difficult text for reading, has been established on firm and definite norms and objectives. â€Å"The first paragraph establishes the essays objective: to investigate technology in order to prepare us for a "free relationship" to it. One of the fundamental questions of the essay has to do with how "we†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ currently relate to technology, how we think about it, what we imagine it to be.† (Heidegger: The Question Concerning Technology, hawaii). Thus, in an ultimate evaluation of the essay one finds the worthiness and value of it. An exceptionally remarkable aspect of the essay "The Question Concerning Technology† is that it, more than any scholarly article on the complex questions around culture and technology, has influenced several other writers and thinkers as well as it is formed on the basis of the existing paradigms and scholarly works on the similar topics. Conspicuously, the interest of the author in "The Question Conce rning Technology† falls not on technology or the various forms of it but on an orientation of the readers towards technology. The essay seems to be very relevant and valid to the modern age of technological age as it has been a relevant interpretation of the modern man in relation to the technological advanced universe. Thus, the essay also amounts large scale influence and significance among the modern writers and it has been structured rooting its arguments and thoughts on the terminology of German, Greek, and Latin. For example, we may consider â€Å"episteme,† the first word that is significant to the idea of information that Heidegger explains to the reader. It can be defined, in simple translation, as "knowledge." In an analysis of the influences that informed this significant essay, it is important to note that the interest of the writer was to orient the readers to technology and act as a tool or mediator between the

Based on the readings, what do you see as the biggest obstacles to Essay

Based on the readings, what do you see as the biggest obstacles to development of poorer nations What can be done about it - Essay Example development in these countries can be divided into four categories: Natural Resources, Human Capital, Poor Infrastructure, and institutional factors.2 However, the difference between the developing and the developed world lies in the human, physical and the socioeconomic environments of the nations in question. This paper has used different theories of development to explain the obstacle to development experienced by poor countries. Most of the poorer countries have inadequate resources including the fertile land. Availability of the resources can bring an increase in the productivity of the economy. In most developing nations, there is shortage of land due to the high population. Lesser land leads to significant fall in cultivation which is the main source of income in the poor nation. This in turn leads to the fall on the nations’ productivity known as the Gross Domestic Products.3 The situation is even worse since these countries have not tapped the technological practices in their productivity. According to the Exogenous Growth theory lack of technology makes it hard for a country to develop. Technology acquisition enables high production per unit of a natural resource like land when it comes to agriculture.4 The land in most of the developing nations is also so much fragmented due to socioeconomic issues such as passing the land to the next generation and the attempt by government to ensure equitable distribution of resources in these areas. It is good to understand that most of these nations over- depends on land which is the backbone of the developing world economy. There is therefore much tension when it comes to land issues.5 Most of the Sub Saharan African countries have vast natural resources that include oil and gold. This line of argument is in agreement with the Exogenous Growth Theory that the problem comes in the identification and affordability of technology that would help in the discovery of mineral deposits.6 This has led corrupting during

Historic leaders Vs Nowadays leaders Dissertation

Historic leaders Vs Nowadays leaders - Dissertation Example Copyright Copyright in the text of this dissertation rests with the Author. Copies (by any process) either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions given by the Author. The ownership of any intellectual property rights, which may be described in this dissertation, is vested in the author and may not be made available for use by third parties without the written consent of the author, which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such agreement. Acknowledgements I dedicate this dissertation to my loving mother and father as well as all of my friends who helped in numerous ways to conclude successfully this project. Abstract It is unfortunately true that no one single perfect leader in human history is the ideal in terms of leadership, and this means that it is impossible to define precisely the set of characteristics and skills that any leader should aspire to. However, it makes sense to try to understand better leadership and the attributes, sk ills and characteristics desired in leaders by examining that which great leaders have demonstrated through the ages because such an effort assists with the understanding of leadership and aspirations for leadership. Although leadership is an intensely human activity, leaders must strive to attain the right vision for the future of their group in an environment in which they exist with their groups and in their time. This means that the right leadership must present a regard for the complexity of organised society and the state of development of humanity to confront future challenges. Because leadership is of significance for any group and there is a shortage of talented leaders in all spheres of human activity, with unique challenges lying ahead, it is possible to gain from insights about leadership by comparing a sample of leaders of the past with a sample of modern leaders to decide about leadership and its evolution over time. This dissertation presents a comparison of Alexander the Great, King Leonidas, Napoleon, Che Guevara, Margaret Thatcher and Barack Obama as leaders to decide about leadership and the evolution of leadership. Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 3 1.2 Objectives of study 7 1.3 Scope of study 9 1.4 Structure of dissertation 10 Chapter 2 Historic Leaders 11 2.1 Alexander the Great 13 2.1.1 Alexander the Great in the Light of the Trait Theory of Leadership 14 2.1.2 Alexander the Great and the Situational Theory of Leadership 16 2.1.3 Alexander the Great in the Light of Contingency Theory of Leadership 17 2.1.4 Alexander the Great as a Transformational Leader

Laminar Air-flow to Control Operating Room Infection

Laminar Air-flow to Control Operating Room Infection INTRODUCTION Surgical site infections (SSIs) are defined as infections occurring within 30 days after surgical operation or within one year if an implant is left in place and affecting either the incision or deep tissue at the operation site (Owens and Stoessel 2008). SSIs are reported as the major cause of high morbidity and mortality among post -operative patients (Weigelt et.al. 2010). According to UK National Joint Registry Report, during 2003 -2006 period infection was responsible for about 19 % failure of joint surgery resulting in revision procedures (Sandiford and skinner 2009). Micro-organisms in the air particles settle on the wound, dressings and surgical instruments and cause infections (Chow and Yang 2005). Whyte et.al (1982) identified that contamination from patients skin as the cause of infection in 2% cases and from theatre personnel in 98% cases. They also found that in 30% cases, contaminants reach the wound from theatre personnel via air and in 70% cases it is via hands. Generally air quality in the operating room is maintained ventilation system. Additional improvements can be achieved by laminar air-flow system or UV lights. Laminar air-flow system is expensive and require continues maintenance. Its installation increases building cost and the operational cost (Cacciariet.al., 2004: Hansen, 2005). Studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of laminar flow produced mixed results and there is no consensus on its role in infection control (Sandiford 2007). In this setting, this paper reviews the recent studies to examine the effectiveness of laminar air-flow in reducing SSIs. Studies for this review were found by searching on databases such as CINAHL, PubMed, Science Direct, Ovidsp, Science Citation Index (ISI) and Google scholar. Keywords used for this search are laminar air flow, surgical site infection, operating room air quality, airborne infections + operating theatre, LMA + infection control. As laminar air-flow is used mainly in orthopaedic theatres, majority of the studies are on joint surgery. OPERATING THEATRE AIR QUALITY AND INFECTION CONTROL Indoor air in an operating theatre contains dust which consists of substances released from disinfectant and sterilizers, respiratory droplets, insect parts smoke released from cautry. Dust particles act as a carrier for transporting microorganisms laden particles and can settle on surgical wound and there by cause infection (Neil 2005). Air particles are found to be responsible for about 80% 90% of microbial contamination (CDC 2005). Modern operating theatres are generally equipped with conventional ventilation system in which filters can remove airborne particles of size >5mm about 80-95% (Dharan 2002). The efficacy of operating room ventilation is measured by the colony forming units (CFU) of organisms present per cubic meter. The conventional ventilation (Plenum) with 20 air exchanges is considered efficient if it achieves the colony count of 35cfu/m3 or less (Bannister 2002). Ventilation system with laminar air-flow directs the air-flow in one direction and sweeps the air particle over the wound site to the exits (CDC 2003). Laminar air-flow with HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Arrestment) filters system has the capacity to remove air particles of size 0.3  µm up to 99.9 % and can produce 300 air exchanges per hour in ultraclean orthopaedic theatres. (Sandiford and skinner 2009). Laminar air-flow units are generally two types; ceiling-mounted (vertical flow) or wall-mounted (horizontal flow). There are inconveniences associated with both types. Generally the major problem associated with laminar air-flow is flow disruption. With vertical laminar flow, it is the heat generated by surgical lamps creates air turbulence while with horizontal laminar flow it is the surgical team that disrupt the air-flow (Dharan 2002). LAMINAR AIR FLOW IN INFECTION CONTROLL Laminar air-flow system is mainly used in implant surgeries where even a small number of microorganisms can cause infection. In joint replacement surgeries, one of the main causes of early (within 3 months) and delayed (within 18 months to 2 years) deep prosthetic infections was found colonisation during surgery (Knobben 2006). Laminar air flow is supposed to minimize contamination by mobilizing uniform and large volume of clean air to the surgical area and Contaminants are flushed out instantly (Chow and Yang, 2004). Some studies found that this method is effective in reducing infection but some others produced contradicting results (give some reference) A recent study conducted by Kakwani et.al. (2007) found that laminar air-flow system is effective in reducing the reoperation rate in Austin-Moore hemiarthroplasty. Their study compared the reoperation rate between theatres with laminar air-flow and theatres without laminar air-flow system. A cohort of 435 patients who had Austin-Moore hemiarthroplasties at Good Hope Hospital in Birmingham between August 2000 and July 2004 were selected for this study. Of those 435 patients, 212 had operation in laminar air-flow theatres and 223 had operation in non-laminar air-flow theatres. Data were collected by reviewing case notes and radiographs. For all cases antibiotics were administrated and water impervious surgical gowns and drapes were used. In the non-laminar air-flow group it was found that the re-operation rate for all indication in the first year after hemiarthroplasties was 5.8 % (13/223), while in the laminar air-flow group it was 1.4% (3/212). Analysis found that there were no stat istically significant relation between re-operation rate and water impervious gown and drapes (p=0.15), while use of laminar air-flow found a statistically significant drop (p=0.0285) in re-operation rate within the first year after hemiarthroplasties. They found that re-operation rate in no-laminar air-flow theatres were four times greater than that in laminar airflow theatres. Even though the aim of the study was clearly described there was no review of existing studies to identify the gap in the research. Study methods and details of statistical analysis were given elaborately. The sample size seems sufficient. Results were summarized and presented using graphs and charts. Discussion of results was short and seems not adequate to address the objectives of the study. There was no attempt to explain the casual relationship. For example researches were making statements such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the introduction of water-impervious drapes and gowns did not seem to make a statistically significant improvement in the resultà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (p.823). Researchers failed to acknowledge any limitations of the study. Data for this study was collected by reviewing patients records. Patients records are considers as confidential and researchers didnt mention whether they received consent from the patients or ethical approval form institution to conduct the study. This ca n be considered as an ethical flaw of this study. There are studies which found that laminar air-flow system is not effective in reducing infection rate. In their study Brandt C et.al (2008) found that infection rate was substantially high in theatres with laminar air-flow system. This was a retrospective cohort-study based on routine surveillance data from German national nosocomial infections surveillance system (KISS). Hospitals which had performed at least 100 operations between the years 2000 and 2004 were selected for this study. Type of ventilation technology installed in operation rooms of selected hospitals were collected separately through questionnaire from infection control teams in the participating hospitals. Surgical departments were grouped into categories according to the type of ventilation system installed. Departments using artificial operating room (OR) ventilation with either turbulent or laminar airflow was included in this study. Total 63 surgical departments from 55 hospitals were included in this study. Analysis was performed to the data set created by merging the questionnaire data on OR ventilation and surveillance data from the KISS data base. The data set analysed contained 99230 operations with 1901 SSIs. Age and gender of the patient was found a significant risk factor of SSI in most procedures. Univariate analysis conducted found that rate of SSIs was high in departments with laminar air flow ventilation. Multivariate analysis also confirmed this finding. Authors argue that it may be due to the improper positioning theatre personnel in horizontal laminar flow room. Researches provided a well-researched literature review which clearly identified gap in current research. Objectives and design of the study was properly explained. Study was based on a large sample size. Results were discussed in detail and casual relations were well explained. Enough tables were used to present results. Limitations were properly discussed. Knobben et.al (2006) conducted an experimental study to evaluate how systemic changes together with behavioural changes can decreases intra-operative contamination. This study was conducted in the university Medical Centre Groningen, The Netherlands. A random sample of 207 surgical procedures which involved total knee or hip prosthesis from July 2001 to January 2004 was selected for this study. Two sequential series of behavioural and systemic changes were introduced to ascertain their role in reducing intra-operative contamination. The control group consisted 70 cases. Behavioural changes (correct use of plenum) were introduced to the first intervention group of 67 operations. Intense behavioural and systemic changes were introduced to second intervention group of 70 operations. The systemic changes introduced was the installation of new laminar flow with improved airflow from 2700m3/h to 8100m3/h. Two samples each were taken from used instruments, unused instruments and removed bon es. Control swabs were also collected to make sure that contamination was not occurred during transport and culturing. Early and late intra-operative contamination was also checked. All patients were monitored for any wound discharge while in hospital and followed-up for 18 months to check whether intra-operative contamination affects post-operative infection. Among the control group contamination was found 32.9% while in intervention group 1 it was 34.3% and in intervention group 2 it was 8.6%. Except in Group 1 (p=0.022) late phase contamination was not significantly higher than early phase contamination. During the control period wound discharge was found in 22.9% patients and 11.4% of them had wound infection later. Deep periprosthetic infection had been found in 7.1% of them in the follow-up period. Deep periprosthetic infection was found in 4.5% cases of first intervention group and in 1.4% of cases in second intervention group in the follow-up period. But none of these decreases were found statistically significant. Contamination, prolonged wound discharge and superficial surgical site infection were found decreased after both first and second intervention. But a statistically significant reduction was found only in second intervention (contamination p=0.001, wound discharge p=0.002 and superficial SSI p=0.004). This study concluded that behaviour modifications together with improved air flow system can reduce intra-operative contamination substantially. Purpose of the study was clearly defined and a good review of the current literature has given. Gap in current research was clearly presented and justification for the study had given. Sample size seems sufficient. It is reported that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.bacterial cultures were taken during 207 random operationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (p. 176), but no details of the sampling method used were provided. Details of interventions were given elaborately and results were discussed in detail. But only one table and two charts used to present it. The readers would have been more benefited if more tables were used to present the results. Discussions of the results were concise and findings were specific and satisfying the objective. No information on whether they received informed consent from the patients and approval form the ethical committee of the institution was missing. This arise a serious question about the ethics of this study. It is found that laminar airflow is more effective when use in conjunction with occlusive clothing (Charnley, 1969 cited in Sandiford and Skinner 2009). While in their recent study Miner et.al (2007) compared the effectiveness of laminar airflow system and body exhaust suits found that body exhaust suits are more effective than laminar flow system in reducing infection. For their study Miner et.al (2007) selected 411 hospitals which have submitted the claim for total knee surgery (TKR) for the year 2000 from four US States were surveyed to collect the details of use of laminar air flow system and body exhaust suits. Those hospitals which were fulfilled three criteria were included in this study. The inclusion criteria were 1) returned the survey instrument, 2) using laminar air flow system or body exhaust suits for infection control and 3) was evidence of at least one Medicare claim for TKR for the study period. Total 8288 TKRs performed in 256 hospitals between 1st January and 30th August 2000 were selected. Data on patient outcomes after total knee replacement (TKR) were collected from Medicare claims. The patients who underwent bilateral TKR were not included in this study and for those who underwent a second TKR during a separate hospitalisation during the study period, only the first procedure was included. International Classification of Disea ses, Ninth Revision (ICDS-9) codes was used to identify post-operative deep infection that needed additional operation. Hospitals were grouped as users or non-users for both laminar airflow and body exhaust suits. Users were defined as those who use any of these methods in more than 75% procedures and non-users were those use any methods less than 75%. The over-all 90-day incidence of deep infection, subsequent operation was found required only in 28 cases (that is 0.34%). Analysis found that the risk ratio for laminar airflow system was higher (1.57, 95% confidence interval 0.75-3.31) than body exhaust suits (0.75, 95% confidence interval 0.34-1.62). Study found that there were no significant differences in infection between hospitals that use specific either protective measure. Other than mentioning few studies researchers failed to provide any background of the research problem. Methods used for this study were explained concisely. Even though the sample size was large, limited number of events (28) were there to be observed. Analysis was based on this small number of events; this may have affected the result. Not many variables were included in this study, and researchers didnt mention how they controlled some possible confounders. Researchers were successful in identifying the advantages and limitations of the study. Results were properly presented in tables. Instead of expensive laminar air-flow system, installation of well-designed ventilation system is found beneficial. Scaltriti et.al (2007) conducted a study in Italy to examine effectiveness of well-designed ventilation system on air quality in operation theatre. They selected operation theatres of a newly built 300 beds community hospital which have ventilation system designed to achieve 15 complete outdoor air changes per hour and are equipped with 0.3  µm, 99.97% HEPA filters. All these satisfy the condition for a clean room as per ISO 7 standard. Passive samples of microbiological air counts were collected using Tripticase Soy Agar 90 mm plates left open thorough out the duration of the procedure. Active samples were also collected using a single state slit-type impactor. Total 82 microbiological samples were collected of which 69 were passive plates and 13 were active. Air dust was counted with a light-scattering particle analyser. Details of the surgery, number of people in the room, door opening rate and estimated total use of the electrocautery unit were also collected. It was found that there were positive correlations between particle contamination, surgical technique (higher risk from general conventional surgery), electrocauterization and operation length. Door opening rate was found negatively associated. Researchers suggest that this may because when theatre door open a turbulent air flow blows out of the operating room which may result decrease in the dust particles. No association was found between particle contamination and number of people present at the time of incision. Researchers suggest that human movement rather than human presence is the factor that determines airborne microbial contamination. It was found that average particle concentration in the theatres did not exceed the European ISO 14 644 standard limits for ISO 7 clean room, and so concluded that well-designed ventilation system is effective in limiting particulate contamination. Uncultivable or unidentifiable organisms can also be a reason for surgical site infections. It may be difficult to identify such organisms through standard culture techniques (Tunney 1998). Clarke et.al (2004) conducted a quantitative study to examine the effectiveness of ultra-clean (vertical laminar flow) theatres in preventing infections by unidentifiable organisms. They used the molecular technique, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), to detect bacteria presence. Their study compared the wound contamination during primary total hip replacement (THR) performed in standard and ultra clean operation theatres. 20 patients underwent primary THR from 1999 to 2001 were recruited for this study. Patients with previous incidents of joint surgery or infection were excluded. The standard operation theatres had 20 air changes per hour and CFU count was 50 CFU/m3, while ultra-modern theatres had 530 air changes per hour and CFU count was 3 CFU/m3. For all surgeries same infection control precautions were used. Two specimens each of pericapsular tissues were collected from posterior joint capsule both at the beginning and at the end of the surgery (total 80 samples). Patients were given antibiotic prophylaxis after taking the first specimen. All these samples were underwent Gram stain and culture to detect bacterial colonies and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) to detect bacterial DNA. Among the 20 specimens taken form the standard operation theatres at the beginning of the surgery only 3 were found positive with PCR, while from the ultra-clean theatres only 2 were found positive. None from both theatres found positive with culture. Samples from the standard theatres taken at the end of the surgery, 2 found positive by culture and 9 found positive by PCR. The contamination rate in the standard theatre at the end of the surgery found significantly greater than the beginning (p=0.04). Samples taken from the ultra-clean theatres, none was positive by culture while only 6 were positive by PCR. Statistical analysis found that contamination rate at the end of the surgery is not statistically different than the start (p=0.1). It was found that there were no statistically significant difference in overall contamination rate (p=0.3) between standard and ultra clean theatres. (I will add critique of this study here) NURSES ROLE IN INFECTION CONTROL Understanding the source of contamination in operating theatre and knowing the relationship between bacterial virulence, patient immune status and wound environment will help in improving the infection rates (Byrne et al 2007). Nurses are responsible to take a proactive role in ensuring safety of their patients. To improve patient outcome, it is necessary for the nurses to take lead role in environmental control and identifying hazards through environmental surveillance (Neil 2005). Non-adherence to the principle of asepsis by surgical team is identified as a significant risk factor of infections. Hectic movement of surgical team members in the operating room and presence of one or more visitors were also found as major causes of SSI (Beldi G 2009). Nurses and managers should emphasise on controlling factors like the traffic in theatre, limiting the number of staff and reinforcement of strict aseptic technique (Allen 2010). Creedon (2005) argues that infections can reduce up to one third if staffs follow best practice principles. For better outcome staffs needs additional education and positive reinforcement. Nurses have a vital role in the development, reviewing and approving of patient care policies regarding infection control. Nurses are not only responsible for practicing the aseptic techniques but also responsible for monitoring other staff for their adherence to policies. They are responsible for developing training programmes for members of staff. Educating the environmental services personnel like technicians, cleaners will not only improve their knowledge in patient care but also provide a sense of commitment in patient outcomes (Neil 2005). Perioperative nurses can contribute in research regarding theatre ventilation system through organised data collection and documenting evidences. Nurses can contribute in giving optimum and safe delivery of care in areas where environmental issues can put the patient at risk. Knowledge is changing fast, so it is important that staff must keep themselves up to date. Continues quality improvement is needed and it should be based on evidence based research and on-going assessment of information (Hughes 2009). CONCLUSION Reviews of current research shows that still there is a lack consensus on the effectiveness of laminar airflow in infection control. Studies include in this review has used either clinical outcomes (infection or reoperation rate) or intermediate outcomes (particle count or bacterial count) to evaluate the effectiveness of laminar flow. Kakwani et.al (2007) found that re-operation rate was lower in laminar airflow theatres but Brandt et.al (2008) found SSI rate was high in hospitals with laminar flow. Clarke et.al (2004) found that contamination was not significantly different in ultra clean theatres compared to standard theatres equipped enhanced ventilation system. Supporting this finding Scaltriti et.al (2007) found well designed ventilation system is effective in reducing contamination. Study by Knobben et.al (2006) found that combination of systemic and behavioural changes are required to prevent intra-operative contamination. Miner et.al (2007) found that there were no significant differences in infection between hospitals that use laminar airflow and body exhaust suits. From these studies it can be concluded that use of laminar airflow alone can guarantee infection prevention. Behavioural and other systemic changes are necessary to enhance the benefits of laminar airflow. Evidence shows that conventional theatres equipped with enhanced ventilation system can prevent infection effectively, this can be consider as an alternative for expensive as laminar flow system.

Margins: Meaning of Life and Frazier Essay

In Ian Frazier’s essay, â€Å"In Praise of Margins†, the author talks about his childhood life and how he had â€Å"margins† where he and his friends would do things and nothing would matter because they wouldn’t care. â€Å"Marginal† thought is valuable because it allows adults to use their imagination. His purpose is to try new activities without shame; it’s the spur of the moment that defines margin. I think his view about marginal activity is comprehensive and relatable. When we think of margins, we think of the extra space on the edge of the paper that we can’t write out of. But marginal has another meaning to it which has to do with the economic world and how we function with margins in our life such as personal experiences. Marginal space is key to the coming of age process in each person’s life whether we share the same activities or not. Although it’s not easy to pin point it out but marginal spaces are needed to escape from everyone’s present problem in everyday life. I agree and believe with Frazier when he is talking about the meaning of marginal because it is true that margins sometimes do not come out the way you want it to be, nothing or nobody is perfect and there are always something ruining the perfect moment that we all have or want. Marginal act take such a high valued meaning according to Frazier because the places and activities that he discovered through his childhood is something that has been lost in the past and also in many societies, especially the economic society. According to Frazier, he added, â€Å"†¦the margin is where you can try out ideas that you might be afraid to admit to with people looking on. † (7) This is an important concept to anyone’s life. One person’s marginal space can different from another person’s as long as it is an activity in which the person escapes from reality. In an economic society, time is considered money and Frazier’s activity of sitting on a tree for hours is more on the lines of suicidal, in economic society’s terms. Frazier agreed that he felt useless at the time of just sitting but as he grew older, the useless time of gazing off turned into something sacred towards him. The sitting in the tree gave him memories and something to reflect back on. It came upon me when I took my nephews out to the ice rink at the Christmas in the Park; I realized if I never done this I would have missed out on what defined me as of today. Though it’s all fun and games I know that it’s one of the activities you can do once in a while that can take you away from your stress and busy day life-style. Reflection cannot happen when there is nothing to look back on. There are always memories that others have whether it be good or bad. It might be their first time driving or their first time swimming. Any memory is something someone can reflect back onto to see who they are and to see how they got to the place they are now. The economic society always keeps moving on and thinks about the future, while human beings need time to focus and reminisce from where they came from. If someone keeps running straight with their heads down, they might get far but eventually, they will get lost. In order to stay on track and know where you’re heading, at times the person needs to look back to see where they started from. Know where you are is the most important thing to knowing who you are and Frazier realized the great importance of that. Frazier’s useless â€Å"marginal† activity such as just plainly sitting brought out the importance of just doing things not to gain a profit but to gain something to reflect on. When Frazier was younger, he had his own marginal place and would always go out to â€Å"the woods†; it was his â€Å"part-time address, destination, purpose, and excuse† (1). While Frazier ran around bumping into bushes and branches, slipping and sliding through thick brown dirt; I was ice skating at the ice arena, hop-scotching, and playing house. Throughout my childhood, I dedicated numerous hours in the freezing cold ice arena at the local mall, hop-scotched afterschool with my neighbors, and played house on the weekends with my cousins. These activities may sound typical as a child but it had a significant meaning towards me. It was my purpose to grow upon these marginal experiences. In the end, all that matters is being able to free your mind from something that you free yourself from caring about what others think. And I believe that I accomplish my marginal activity as a child, through every fall and bruises that I received while ice skating, I couldn’t care less about what others had to say about me because I knew that every time I got up it’ll only make me a better skater in the end. Although changes occurred and I grew out of the marginal acts, agreeing with Frazier’s realization, â€Å"†¦and suddenly there was nothing up there for us. † (4) The excitement of skating on the slipping cold ice with no shame of failing can only be done as a marginal act, because I can no longer look at the rink the same way I did when I was younger. Nor can I play hop-scotch the way I did, hopping from one box to another is like going from one class to another today. Instead of playing house with my cousins, we became college students looking for a stable job that can support our education. I agree with Frazier that the â€Å"remember whens† really does faltered and â€Å"playing† time doesn’t have to end here. Although margins can be done differently and looked at differently, marginal is necessary for a person of all ages to let loose in order to overcome the pressure and stresses of everyday life. Frazier’s marginal activities consisted of breaking ice, climbing trees, and picking fruits. My marginal activities consisted of ice skating, hop-scotching, and playing house. Marginal activities may vary from being active in a sport, traveling, singing or perhaps even enjoying a movie night on the couch; by the end of the day marginal activities is necessary in order to free yourself from the strains of everyday life.

The Challenges for Informatics in Developing Software for Modern Multikernel Computers

The challenges for Informatics in developing software for modern multikernel computers Abstract The purpose of this post is to examine the introduction of  parallel computing and the challenges of software development  for Parallel execution environment. First I will introduce the idea of parallel computing and up next I will present and evaluate the challenges of parallel computing along with their solutions and finally some conclusion will be drawn. Vertical & Horizontal Development in ComputingThe question arise when we are thinking about how the  complex scientific problems  of the twenty-first century including climate modeling, genomic research and artificial intelligence are testing the limits of the Von Neumann model of sequential processing. In the past, computer scientists worked on the new approach to extend the  power of computers in vertical manner, this means that they were working on producing huge super computers but with recent advances in technology and re ducing cost of resources and arrival of multi kernel processing has helped us to think about new ways to solve huge and complex problem in parallel manners.Introduction to parallel computing For the most part, along with a host of new research questions that have arisen in the last decade, there remains a significant challenge today. Parallel processing  offers the promise of providing the computational speed required to solve important large-scale problems. In fact, parallel processing requires a big shift in how we think to solve the problem. Regardless of new hardware technologies, we should think about the new approach of developing software systems and also the way we think about our problem and presenting our solution. (Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms).Challenges of parallel computing For the sake of applying the power and flexibility of multi-core processors, we should think about a new approach to  breakdown huge problems  into smaller elements. A better ill ustration of parallel processing occurs when a divide and conquer model is used to solve a task. In this approach the problem is successively partitioned into smaller and smaller parts and sent off to other processors, until each one has only a trivial job to perform. Each processor then completes that trivial operation and returns its result to the processor that sent the task.These processors in turn do a little work and give the results   back to the processors that gave them the tasks, and so on, all the way back to the originating processor. In this model there is far more communications between processors. n the next step, we should think about how to express our program which can be executable in a parallel computing environment. Functional Programming plays a vital role in this area, since it provide programmer to solve their issue in functional manner rather than sequential processing.There are simple principles in functional programming such as avoiding Mutable states, L ambdas, Closures and more importantly declarative paradigm which help programmers to free their mind about concurrency, synchronization, Race Condition and other multi core computation issues. Although parallel  functional programming  helps us to represent our program in declarative manner in order to be applicable for parallel execution, but the problem is remain unsolved without thinking about how we can manage data in parallel computing environment.Industrial Revolution of Data – Age of Big Data We’re now entering into new age of computing named as â€Å"Industrial Revolution of Data†. In fact, the majority of data will be produced automatically by different kinds of machine such as software logs, video cameras, RFID, wireless sensors and so on. Due to the considerable decrease in cost of computer resources, storing those data is so cheap, so companies tend to collect and store them in huge data warehouse for future when it can be mined for valuable info rmation.The  Big Data now comes to play, working with such distributed, huge and complex data would be impossible or better to say inefficient with existing software and databases system. We should think about other approaches for storing large set of data which is stored in different computers and in the next step effectively mining and executing queries from those sources. Perhaps the biggest game-changer to come along is  MapReduce, the parallel programming framework that has gained prominence thanks to its use at web search companies.The research in parallel computing has had the most success and influence in parallel databases. In fact, instead of breaking out a large problem into smaller element execute by different threads simultaneously, parallel database help us to store, querying and retrieve data from distributed resources over network effectively. MapReduce as Parallel Programming Framework MapReduce  algorithm is invented by Google to cope with Big Data in their s earch engine system. In fact, MapReduce is containing two simple primitives function which are available in Lisp and also in other functional languages.The computation include two basic operation, a map operation which execute on input records containing key/value pairs, and then invoking a reduce operation which collect and aggregate all responses from different nodes. There are many different Implementations in different programming languages which are exist and used in industry for processing large set of data. In fact, most of  NoSQL databases  use this algorithm for collecting data from different sources in distributed heterogeneous environment. The biggest advantage of MapReduce is that it allows for distributed processing of map and reduction function.In fact, it allows us, to collect and process distributed data stored in different machine simultaneously. Conclusion Parallel computing  can help us to solve hug complex problem in more efficient way. In order to parallel ize our task we should think about different challenges which we cope in developing software for parallel execution environment. However, we should bear in mind that parallel computing is useful when we are facing with a big problem which can distributed among different computing agents. In addition, we should deeply think about the  nature of problem,  time  as well as  limits  and  costs  of Parallel Programming.

10 Interesting Facts About Nelson Mandela

10 Interesting Facts About Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela will forever be remembered for the key role he played in dismantling South Africa’s system of racial apartheid. The activist and politician, who died on Dec. 5, 2013, at the age of 95, became an international symbol of peace and tolerance. While Mandela is a household name across the globe and hes been immortalized in motion pictures documentaries and books, many aspects of his life aren’t particularly well known to the American public. This list of interesting facts about Mandela’s life help to illuminate Mandela, the man. Discover the impact his father’s death from lung cancer had on him as a youth or  why Mandela, a good student in spite of his humble origins, was expelled from university. Born July 18, 1918, Mandela’s birth name was Rolihlahla Mandela. According to Biography.com, â€Å"Rolihlahla† is often translated as â€Å"troublemaker† in the Xhosa language, but strictly translated, the word means â€Å"pulling the branch of a tree.† In grade school, a teacher gave Mandela the Western first  name of â€Å"Nelson.†The death of Mandela’s father from lung cancer was a huge turning point in his life. It resulted in the then 9-year-old’s adoption by Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo of the Thembu people, which resulted in Mandela leaving the small village he’d grown up in, Qunu, to travel to the chief’s palatial home in Thembuland. The adoption also allowed Mandela to pursue his education at institutions such as the Clarkebury Boarding Institute and Wesleyan College. Mandela, the first in his family to attend school, proved not only to be a good student, but also a good boxer and track runner.Mandela pursued a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University College of Fort Hare but was expelled from the institution because of his role in student activism. This news upset Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo, who ordered Mandela to return to school and renounce his actions. The chief also threatened Mandela with an  arranged marriage, causing him to flee to Johannesburg with his cousin and pursue a career on his own. Mandela suffered the losses of two close family members while imprisoned. His mother died in 1968 and his eldest son, Thembi, died the following year. Mandela wasn’t permitted to pay his respects at their funerals.Although many people associate Mandela with his ex-wife Winnie, Mandela actually married three times. His first marriage, in 1944, was to a nurse named Evelyn Mase, with whom he fathered two sons and two daughters. One daughter died as a baby. Mandela and Mase split in 1955, formally divorcing three years later. Mandela married social worker Winnie Madikizela in 1958, fathering two daughters with her. They divorced six years after Mandela’s release from prison for his anti-apartheid activism. When he turned 80 years old in 1998, Mandela married his last wife, Graà §a Machel.While in prison from 1962 to 1990, Mandela wrote a secret autobiography. The contents of his prison writings were published as a book called Long Walk to Freedom in 1994.Mandela reportedly received at least three offers to be set free from prison. However, he declined each time because he was offered his freedom on the condition that he reject his earlier activism in some way. Mandela voted the first time ever in 1994. On May 10 of that year, Mandela became South Africa’s first black elected president. He was 77 at the time.Mandela not only fought against racial apartheid but also raised awareness about AIDS, a virus that has ravaged scores of Africans. Mandela’s own son, Makgatho, died from complications of the virus in 2005.Four years before Mandela’s death, South Africa would observe a holiday in the activist’s honor. Mandela Day, celebrated on his birthday, July 18, marks a time for people in and outside of South Africa to serve charitable groups and to work towards world peace.

Free Essays on Robert Frosts Poem “Birches“

In Robert Frost’s poem â€Å"Birches† there are three distinct movements which decscribe the way things can be, the way things should be, and they way you wish things could be once more. Each of these movements is also exemplified by the use of a great deal of imagery, writing style, and usage. The first movement (between lines 1 and 20) is what I spoke of as â€Å"the way things can be.† Frost uses sayings such as, â€Å"They are dragged to the withered bracken by the load, And they seem not to break; though once they are bowed So low for long, they never right themselves.† This quote is saying that the weather beaten or â€Å"forced† limbs find themselves weakened. They are not broken, but forever changed by the battering of a nature that seems to be so beautifully cruel to them. They seem to have been loved not by a human’s touch, but by a colder source. The imagery Frost uses to show the stress and strain put on the branches by the force of nature allows the reader to picture something being forever altered by the span of time. He compares the ice metaphorically to â€Å"heaps of broken glass.† Broken glass tends to be an image of chaos, disorder, or unhappiness. His tone in this passage speaks to me as if the situation is bea utiful, yet at the same time somewhat of a waste of a birch branch yearning for human touch. These birch branches receive a different treatment in the second movement (lines 21 to 40), which I’ve deemed â€Å"the way things should be.† The initial lines personify truth. Truth and reality are what the first movement is bent upon. Yet, Frost points out that he wishes the â€Å"birch†, which I’ve come to understand symbolizes the human capability of life and learning, could have such a different fate than one laden with ice and burdon bent branches. The human spirit comes to live and learn in many different situations. The boy is able to take on his tree, and learn from it. Starting from the b... Free Essays on Robert Frost's Poem â€Å"Birchesâ€Å" Free Essays on Robert Frost's Poem â€Å"Birchesâ€Å" In Robert Frost’s poem â€Å"Birches† there are three distinct movements which decscribe the way things can be, the way things should be, and they way you wish things could be once more. Each of these movements is also exemplified by the use of a great deal of imagery, writing style, and usage. The first movement (between lines 1 and 20) is what I spoke of as â€Å"the way things can be.† Frost uses sayings such as, â€Å"They are dragged to the withered bracken by the load, And they seem not to break; though once they are bowed So low for long, they never right themselves.† This quote is saying that the weather beaten or â€Å"forced† limbs find themselves weakened. They are not broken, but forever changed by the battering of a nature that seems to be so beautifully cruel to them. They seem to have been loved not by a human’s touch, but by a colder source. The imagery Frost uses to show the stress and strain put on the branches by the force of nature allows the reader to picture something being forever altered by the span of time. He compares the ice metaphorically to â€Å"heaps of broken glass.† Broken glass tends to be an image of chaos, disorder, or unhappiness. His tone in this passage speaks to me as if the situation is bea utiful, yet at the same time somewhat of a waste of a birch branch yearning for human touch. These birch branches receive a different treatment in the second movement (lines 21 to 40), which I’ve deemed â€Å"the way things should be.† The initial lines personify truth. Truth and reality are what the first movement is bent upon. Yet, Frost points out that he wishes the â€Å"birch†, which I’ve come to understand symbolizes the human capability of life and learning, could have such a different fate than one laden with ice and burdon bent branches. The human spirit comes to live and learn in many different situations. The boy is able to take on his tree, and learn from it. Starting from the b...

Marketing plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing plan - Assignment Example We will introduce the new notebook, The Book-It Note, with penetration pricing and formidable advertising. We will also employ extensive distribution, which will translate to increased revenue and growth rate. Those over 31 years of age purchase relatively over 50 percent of all the notebooks as shown in the table above. Purchase of notebooks is also supposed to be dependent on gender. Normally, women purchase notebooks more than men do. However, the trend changes when the group in question is around 35 years of age or older. The current generation of young men is used to smartphone apps more than ladies are meaning that they may not be a very good set of The Book-It Note customers. For female student customers, their attention to aesthetic may require that we make the notebook a little appealing with vibrant colors. However, The Book-It Note is generally plain and neat eliminating any distractions while using it. Within the consumer market, we identify middle and upper-income professionals who normally have very tight schedules and their professions demand that they do not forget things they have discussed throughout the day or worse still, forget future meetings. The intricacy involved in using phones to record notes or noting down future appointments plus the possibility that the phone discharges or may lose data require more ‘tangible’ places to note down important information. The classical notebook is normally the best for this purpose. To reach this market, we will employ sales and marketing agents who will be visiting people in their offices and informing them of our innovative

Topical Analysis of Hamlet and Henry IV part 1 Essay

Topical Analysis of Hamlet and Henry IV part 1 - Essay Example In the times when all these topics were impossible to write on Shakespeare made a great move and wrote on these topics with immense care. This essay would further describe how Shakespeare used all these topics in these times with his skills so that these topics became acceptable not only on the page but also on the stage. Henry IV Part I is a story about a King and his rebellions. It revolves around the greed for the kingdom and the betrayal of king. King Henry leads the story as the king but soon faces problems at the hands of the people because of whom he has reached the throne. King Henry is not content with the actions of his son Prince Harry who is more diverted towards the materialistic world. Prince Harry not only does involve in drinking but he also makes friends with liars and burglars. This creates a gap of misunderstanding between the King and the Prince. However the change in the plot takes place when one of the loyal noblemen of the King betrays him and shows his greed for the attainment of the throne of King Henry. Hotspur is the name of the character that betrays the King and forces a civil war to pertain in his kingdom. Furthermore, he also gathers allies in order to fight the army of the King and defeat him, but it is later known that most of his allies refuse to take part in the war . Seeing the situation of a civil war in the state King Henry calls upon his son to fight in the battle. Prince Harry comes back to the throne only to fight and win the war for his father. Hotspur is defeated by the army of King Henry with the help of his son and both the father and son get back on good terms. In this sequel Shakespeare tells about the greed one has for the throne and the inner conflicts which a kingdom can face. However in those times it was impossible to point out at the royal kingdom and the greed which people have for the throne. But this

Analyse how students at the University of Gloucestershire can take Essay

Analyse how students at the University of Gloucestershire can take full advantage of the opportunities offered to develop their employability skills - Essay Example gathered that expectation of employers has shifted from academic result and degree to employability skills such as teamwork, leadership, positive attitude and motivation and relative work experience (Snowden, 2011; Mason, Williams and Cranmer, 2006). The UK job industry is evolving rapidly and drastic change has been observed in demand of skilled workforce in past few years. However, it was observed in surveys that UK universities are making very weak contribution in this regard. It was gathered that 50percent and above surveyed graduates alleged that their universities did not take sufficient measures to develop their employability skills (Weinstein, 2014). The UK universities make yearly contribution of  £59 billion towards the economy and are essentially responsible for generating high skilled workforce, imparting non-academic skills such as innovation and training and raising standard of education (Snowden, 2011). The paper assesses and critically examines the opportunities that are being presented to graduates by University of Gloucestershire for developing their employability skills and recommendations have been provided accordingly. Employability skills are referred to set of attributes that helps individuals to respond accurately to the changing environment of workplace and to make positive contribution towards organisational success and personal growth and development. Employability skills deliver benefits to employers as well as employees and include skills such as self-management, accountability, time management, team working, consumer awareness and awareness of business environment, problem solving, positive attitude, entrepreneurship, communication skill and analytical skill (CBI, 2009; Mason, Williams and Cranmer, 2006). Employers make heavy investment in developing skills among new recruits by means of training and development post joining. However, the level of basic expectations has increased over the years. Presently, they want individuals to

Finance & Strategic Management Essay Example for Free

Finance Strategic Management Essay Over the past decades the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has continued to grow in importance and significance due to external pressure of diverse stakeholders, and has thereby become more prominent on companies’ agendas (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Beurden Gossling, 2008). The concept of CSR has been subject to considerable debate, commentary, theory building and continues research (Carroll Shabana, 2010). The question, of whether CSR investments result in financial and social benefits that outweigh its costs, is intensively scrutinized in existing literature (Schreck, 2001; Carroll Shabana, 2010). Adherents of CSR argue that it is in the long-term self-interest of corporations to be socially involved (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Barnet 2007). The overall logic is that CSR increases the trustworthiness of firms and strengthens the relationships with stakeholders. CSR may further result in decreased transaction costs and thereby improved corporate financial performance (CFP), by decreasing employee turnover, reducing operating costs, as well as functioning as a buffer in disruptive events (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Barnet, 2007). Barnett (2007) and Schreck (2011) argue that, if the financial benefits of CSR meet or exceed the costs, CSR can be justified as a rational investment. According to Kurucz, Colbert and Wheeler (2008), firms may attain four distinct benefits from engaging in CSR; cost and risk reduction; gaining competitive advantage; developing reputation and legitimacy; and seeking win–win outcomes through synergistic value creation. Critics of CSR typically use classical economic arguments, articulated most forcefully by Friedman (Carroll Shabana, 2010). Traditionally, the expenditures of CSR are considered an illegitimate waste of resources, which conflict with a firm’s responsibility to its shareholders (Schreck, 2011, Barnet, 2007). According to Friedman (1970) â€Å"There is one and only one social responsibility of business – to use it resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Friedman further argued that, social issues are not the concern of business people, and â€Å"the business of business is business† (Carroll Shabana, 2010). Even though CSR have been subject to critique, an increasing number of corporations are accepting responsibilities that extend well beyond the immediate interest of the owners, by considering â€Å"non-shareholder stakeholders’ concerns† (Grant, 2010; Clegg, Carter, Kornberger Schweitzer, 2011). Although the existence, direction and strength of possible links between CSR and CFP have been the subject of several empirical analyses (Schreck, 2011), and even though CSR is almost universally practiced, the results from empirical studies are inconclusive (De Bakker, Groenewegen Hond, 2005). After more than thirty years of research, it cannot clearly be concluded, whether a one-dollar investment in social initiatives returns more or less, than one dollar in benefits to shareholders (Barnet, 2007; Surroca Tribo Waddock, 2008). The inconclusiveness of empirical studies may be due to unclear and inconsistent definitions of key terms (De Bakker, Groenewegen Hond, 2005; Barnet, 2007), methodological differences (Carrol Shabana, 2010), and diverse approaches of measuring CSR and CFP (Beurden Gossling, 2008). In existing literature, CSR activities are often entioned to reduce risk, by avoiding the various consequences of moral disapproval by numerous stakeholders (Zadek, 2000). However, CSR derived risk reductions are considered as an ex-post beneficial outcome and not as a proactive risk management instrument to control or reduce idiosyncratic risk (firm specific). Under the assumption that, shareholders are risk adverse and prefer a high expected return (Bodie, Kane Marcus, 2011; Brealey, Myers Allen, 2011), a reduction of firm specific risk must be perceived as favorably. Provided that CSR investments can be applied as a risk management tool, CSR could be seen as investments by firms on behalf of its shareholders. Taking a shareholder perspective, this paper looks beyond the socially good deed of CSR, and focuses on the value of CSR as a method to reduce idiosyncratic risk without detriment of CFP. CSR and Risk Management Since this paper hypothesizes that, CSR can be applied as a risk management instrument to preserve CFP, risk need to be defined. Risk can be defined as the uncertainty about outcomes or events, especially with respect to the future (Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Widely risk management is defined as a managerial tool to avoid risk, transfer risk to another party, reduce risk, or in some cases accepting consequences of a certain risk (Froot, Scharfstein Stein, 1994). A shareholder’s perspective on risk management however, conflicts with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) (Markowitz, 1952) and the Modigliani Miller’s theorem on capital structure (1958). CAPM theory states that, the cost of reducing idiosyncratic risks simultaneously reduces the expected return, and hence firm value (Markowitz, 1952). Risk reduction by holding a well-diversified portfolio of securities will be unattainable by risk management (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009), why a profit-maximizing investor would not prefer risk management. Total firm risk is in general the combination of systematic and unsystematic risk (Hoje Haejung, 2012). Systematic risk, often referred to as market risk or non-diversifiable risk, is usually defined as the firm’s sensitivity to changes in the market average returns, which cannot be reduced by diversification of shareholders (Weber, 2008; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Unsystematic risk is defined as idiosyncratic risk (Hoje Haejung, 2012; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009). Idiosyncratic risk is traditionally viewed as indifferent to the portfolio investors, since it is associated with specific companies and thereby can be reduced by diversified portfolios (Husted, 2005; Weber, 2008). Opposing idiosyncratic risk is of great relevance to the firm manager, whose very survival may depend upon taking adequate measures to reduce the idiosyncratic risk (Husted, 2005). Firms’ financial risk is often defined in terms of variability of returns (Orlitsky Benjamin 2001), or stock price volatility (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009), which is important risk measures, given that higher volatility implies greater investment risk and uncertain future cash flows (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012). A reduction in idiosyncratic risk reflects reduced variance in the future expected cash flows, which translates into greater shareholder wealth (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Mishra Modi, 2012). In a strict Modigliani and Miller perspective, risk-management instruments are of no value, since these are purely financial transactions that do not affect the value of a company’s operating assets (Froot, Scharfstein Stein, 1994). The views of CAMP and Modigliani and Miller have been superseded by a postmodern view of risk management as an important strategic tool. Firms do invest in insurances even though the costs of these investments may be in excess of expected losses, which is in clear violation with the perfect market assumption (Smith Stulz, 1985; Stultz, 2002). If risk management can reduce firms’ exposure to idiosyncratic risks, it protects shareholders against the deadweight costs of severe financial distress in a way, that investors can not accomplish in the market by diversifying (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). Review of the linkage between CSR and risk For several decades, researchers have aimed at discovering a conclusive linkage between CSR and CFP, the literature however, remains highly fragmented (Aguinis Glavas 2012). According to Orlitsky Benjamin (2001) true economic performance manifests itself in both high financial returns and low financial risk. Among financial and non-monetary benefits, risk reduction is often mentioned as a positive outcome of engaging in CSR activities. Porter and Kramer (2006) argue that, today’s pressure, of external stakeholders to hold companies accountable for social issues, learly demonstrate the potential large financial risks for any corporation. Several scholars emphasize, that the costs of CSR can be justified by reductions in risk and costs derived from engagement in social issues (Caroll Shabana, 2010). The primary argument is that the diverse demands of stakeholders represent potential threats and risks to the viability of the firm, why it is the economic interest of firms to mitigate these threats and gain legitimacy through social involvement (Caroll Shabana, 2010; Schreck, 2011; Kurucz, Colbert Wheeler 2008). Existing literature on the CSR-risk relationship is virtually unanimously agreeing upon a negative correlation between CRS and idiosyncratic risk, where empirical results show that CSR lowers idiosyncratic risk (Spicer, 1978; Orlitsky Benjamin, 2001; Godfrey, 2005; Hoje Haejung, 2012; Caroll Shabana, 2010; Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009; Heal, 2005; Luo Bhattacharya, 2012; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012; Berman, Wicks, Kotha Jones, 1999; Hart, 1995; Shrivastava, 1995; Peloza, 2006). Several studies have also shown a significant negative relationship between CSR and systematic risk (non-diversifiable) (Hoje Haejung 2012; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001; Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009). CSR reduces idiosyncratic risk by reducing the probabilities of expected financial, social, or environmental crisis that could adversely influence firms’ cash flows (Hoje Haejung, 2012). Firms perceived as socially responsible may be able to increase interpersonal trust among stakeholders, build social capital, lower transaction costs, and therefore ultimately reduce uncertainty about future financial performance (Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Luo and Bhattacharya (2009) present the view of CSR, as helping the firm build a bulwark of defense against future losses of economic value by reducing firm specific risk and vulnerability of future cash flows. Firms with high social responsibility may have lower financial risk, since these are less sensitive to certain negative external events, like regulatory governmental intervention, undesirable publicity, probability of civil- and criminal legal proceedings or consumer boycotts, why risk reduction can be seen as a monetary benefit of CSR (Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012; Weber, 2008; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001; Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988). Participation in specific types of CSR, those aimed at a firm’s secondary stakeholders or society as a whole, is argued to create a form of goodwill or positive â€Å"philanthropic moral reputational capital†, which functions as an insurance-like protection, when negative events occur (Godfrey, 2005; Peloza, 2006). When business activity creates negative impact on society, stakeholders respond by sanctioning the firm (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). It is argued that the goodwill, derived from engagement in CSR, reduces the overall severity of the sanctions, by encouraging stakeholders to give the firm ‘the benefit of the doubt‘(Godfrey, 2005; Uzzi, 1997; Peloza, 2006; Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). The resultant moral capital gained from social engagement has little to do with generating financial value, but the insurance-like protection contributes with preserving shareholder value and thereby financial performance (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). Mishra and Modi (2012) fund a significant effect on idiosyncratic risk, when CSR is applied, the authors however enhanced this result by finding that, positive CSR reduces idiosyncratic risk, while negative CSR increases idiosyncratic risk. Literature has, according to Mishra and Modi (2012), often a singular focus on positive CSR, and overlooks that firms also occasionally engage in activities that qualifies as negative CSR. Luo and Bhattacharya (2009) and Porter and Kramer (2006) argue that CSR is not beneficial in all situations, but is rather advantageous in some contexts and disadvantageous in others and can even lead to additional risk. This is in line with Barnet (2007), who argues that stakeholders’ perception of firms’ CSR engagement are path-dependent (Barnet, 2007; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Hoje Haejung, 2012). For firms with social negative impact or prior bad reputation, CSR may be perceived as â€Å"blood money† to mitigate past sins, omissions or shortcomings (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Barnet 2007). CSR can thereby lead to reduced idiosyncratic risk, but can also expose a firm to additional risk (Weber, 2008; Barnet, 2007). Discussion Even though the CSR-risk relationship have received much attention in the existing literature, managing risk as the predominantly basic for engaging in CSR has not received specific attention. Focus within the field is on ex-post measures of risk-related benefits, where CSR is not valued as a proactive tool to reduce idiosyncratic risk. Existing research does not seem to provide any practical guidance to managerial proactive evaluations of the risk reductions derived from CSR involvement. It further lacks a practical framework to ex-ante quantify the risk related benefits of CSR (Weber, 2008). The above review demonstrates the focus on risk, solely as valuable side-effect of engaging in CSR activities. The authors of the paper posit a research gap exists within the existing literature of CSR and risk: CSR is not considered as a proactive ex-ante risk management instrument to control and reduce firm risk. Given the risk reducing benefits of CSR, the authors suggest that investments in CSR can be used as a proactive risk management instrument to reduce idiosyncratic risk. Such an approach could strengthen the overall CSR involvement and support rational ex-ante decision-making in this area (Weber, 2008). The aim is to draw a much-need attention to the risk-reduction potential of CSR by viewing CSR investments as a proactive risk management tool, where managing risk is the main purpose for engaging in CSR. Empirical resolving the research gap and verifying the hypothesis is beyond the scope of this paper. The authors however, suggest that a potential solution is to apply real option theory as a basis for proactive CSR risk management decision-making. CSR as a real option Attributable to the aforementioned arguments, the function of CSR as a risk management tool can be considered as a real option. Regular options are based on securities (financial instruments), whereas real options are based on hedging against uncertainties in real investment projects (Mun, 2002). An analysis of the costs and benefits of CSR projects, using traditional NPV models, often leads to a rejection, as these fail to contribute to maximizing shareholder value (Friedman, 1962). This is, nevertheless, not always the right decision, as the NPV approach fails to incorporate the main advantage of real options (Husted, 2005). Compared to the traditional NPV approach, real options offer management flexibility through multiple decision-making in situations with high uncertainty. Managers have the option, but not the obligation, to engage in, modifying or end strategies, as new information becomes available (Mun, 2002). A CSR option offers the choice of deferring, abandoning, expanding, or staging an investment project (Amram Howe, 2003). Due to the theoretical and mathematical complexity of option theory, which is beyond the scope of this scientific paper, option theory will be described on an incomprehensive level. In brief option pricing is a function of five variables: the value of the underlying asset, the exercise price, time to exercise, the risk-free interest rate, and the volatility of the underlying asset (Black Scholes, 1973). The value of the underlying asset is the resources resulted from the CSR option, such as qualified employees, PR and cost avoiding’s etc. Husted, 2005). The exercise price refers to the required additional investments needed for receiving the value created by the CSR option. The timing of the exercise is an essential variable, as it has great effect on the value of CSR options. The risk-free interest rate does not play an important role in most real options (Mun, 2002). The volatility or the uncertainty of the underlying asset has a significant impact on the value of CSR options (Mun, 2002). The variance of the expected value can both be higher or lower than the expected return. Black and Scholes is the most widely used regular option pricing model, however, also one of the most complicated models (Mun, 2002). A Binomial lattice approach is applied in most real option pricing, as it provides a more transparent and intuitive appeal compared with Black and Scholes’ theoretical and mathematical approach (Mun, 2002). However, since the aim is solely to clarify the value of real options in a CSR context, the choice of approach is of less relevance. Real options provide an important framework for firms to manage risk by reducing the risk of future investments, and can thus be an essential tool in corporate risk management (Husted, 2005). Finally, a real CSR option explicitly includes a time dimension. This ex-ante perspective is clearly different from the focus on risk in most CSR-risk research, which is ex post in nature. CSR as a risk management instrument – The Toyota example A few decades ago, car manufacturers did not focus so intensively on a green profiling as they do today. The increased oil prices in 1973 and 1979 were influential for the entry of Japanese car manufacturers in USA, who were producing smaller and more gas efficient cars (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). The gas efficient cars of Japanese manufactures were causative to the car industry as a whole subsequently invested massively in green technology projects. These investments have met consumers’ need and have generated positive branding values. Toyota’s Prius has reached â€Å"cult status†, as it is one of the most gas efficient and green cars on the market. However, more interestingly is the security, that the green profile of the Prius has offered Toyota, which includes protection against the bad publicity of car manufacturers’ contribution to pollution and factors such as Middle Eastern conflicts that influence oil prices and hence sales of cars. At first glance, it appears as Toyota has been skilled at forecasting future trends and meeting customer’s needs without using CSR as management instrument. As the following example however illustrates, Toyota’s management could have benefitted from considering investments in CSR as real options to control idiosyncratic risk and thereby preserve CFP. In 2009 repeated accidents occurred, which were accused to be caused by flaws in floor mats and accelerator pedals in Toyota’s vehicles. This resulted in a recall of more than 5 million vehicles, alone in the North American market (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). Before a product is recalled, companies have to make severe considerations. A product-recall can have great financial impact in terms of losses in brand value, consumer goodwill, decreasing sales and a negative effect on stock prices (Kumara Schmitza, 2011), which in this case is the value of the underlying asset of the CSR option. The decision to recall the cars is the price of the option. The recall option could have generated strategic flexibility, which however, meanwhile was eliminated, as Toyota’s management failed to exercise the option, before it was too late. The leisurely recall decision resulted in losses in brand value, consumer goodwill, decreased stock price, lower sales, a fine of $16 million and more than 130 potential class-action lawsuits (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). The negative outcome of the late recall is considered as high volatility of the underlying asset. A faster recalling could have had a avoiding, a limited or opposite effect on product brand, consumer goodwill and the massive media coverage (Husted, 2005). Provided that Toyota’s management had viewed the recall decision as a valuable option rather than severe costs, strategic flexibility could have been obtained, why the negative outcome may have been avoided. A faster exercise of the recall option might have resulted in goodwill or trust, which could have been exploited by Toyota to limit the negative publicity caused by the repeated accidents. Toyota however, failed to exercise the recall option in acute time, why the result was lost flexibility to respond to the unexpected event of the accidents. The value of the real option foregone by Toyota was a function of inter alia lost sales, brand value and reputation. Toyota’s management failed to exploit the advantages of CSR as a risk management tool.